59. 2011 Dec;20(4):998-1008. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2010.10.005. Jouvet M. Programmation gntique itrative et sommeil paradoxal. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. 64. In fact, it does frequently occur when movements are expressed as high frequency potentials. Xu Q, Xie H, Zheng D, Wu X, Zhang Y, Li T, Yan T. J Pers Med. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. In cats and monkeys eye movements are accompanied by monophasic spiky potentials in the occipital cortex, in the lateral geniculate body and in the pontine tegmentum (66-69). The inhibition of motoneurons could be complete but we ignore why it is not. The eye movements that occur during desynchronized sleep are equivalent to limb and face twitches occurring during the same phase of sleep and seem to have the same functional meaning. It is likely that even strong stimuli may be ineffective in producing an arousal during sleep if they are trivial, whereas light stimulation containing relevant information may be highly efficient. Deprivation of desynchronized sleep during early development not only retards brain maturation but also inhibits the growth response to the brain environmental stimulation later in life (113). Eine Methodik der Ableitung localisierter Potentialschwankungen aus subcortikalen Hirngebieten. Accessibility Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. Rothschuch KR. 21. Nat Rev Neurosci. The most prominent, the activation-synthesis hypothesis, derived its view of dreaming directly from the neurophysiology of REM sleep, in particular the role of the brain stem, and in its original form regarded dreams as not essentially meaningful. Roberts LA, Higgins MJ, O'Shaughnessy CT, Stone TW, Morris BJ. The first oscillation lasts around two hours, when sleep attains its deepest level; the ensuing cycles last less and their depth tends to decrease until arousal finally occurs, a sequence that recent research has fully confirmed. (ed. Electroencerph Clin Neurophysiol 1964;17:617-29. It has been proposed (120,123,124) that presleep mentation is infrequently incorporated in top dreams and that "naturalistic" day time events rarely enter dream content, but several authors correlated dream content to the previous day events, starting with Aristotle 2,400 years ago and with Calkins in 1893. Neurosci Conscious. 89. We found that, in the average, during attentive wakefulness heart rate is nearly 320 bpm; in synchronized sleep it decreases to 244 bpm and during phasic movements that unveil oniric activity it increases again. 63. In cats, Thomas & Benoit (18) have found oniric activity during synchronized sleep, similar to what we described in rats as pre-paradoxical sleep (19,20) as intermediate phase. In 1999, Ribeiro et al., assaying zif-268 expression in control rats and in rats subjected to a rich environment training, found that in control animals this gene protein generally decreased, mainly in the cerebral cortex, from wakefulness to synchronized sleep and from synchronized to desynchronized sleep (109). J Sleep Res 1993;2:63-9. the apparitions. 41. The tonic inhibition of motoneurons by circuits in the alphacoeruleus nucleus during desynchronized sleep is mediated by hyperpolarization of their membrane (41-43). Advances in Sleep Research, vol. At the age between 7 and 9 years Foulkes' subjects produced much more consistent narrations of the dream content, as should be expected (24). Roffwarg HP, Adrien J, Herman J, Pessah M, Spiro R, Bowe-Anders C. The middle ear muscle activity in the neurophysiology and psychophysiology of the REM state. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. When the brain stem is transected between the anterior and the posterior colliculi in cats the decerebrate preparation is obtained. Schmidek WR, Hoshino K, Schmidek M, Timo-Iaria C. Influence of environmental temperature on the sleep-wakefulness cycle in the rat. Guazzi M, Baccelli G, Zanchetti A. Carotid body chemoreceptors: physiological role in buffering fall in blood pressure during sleep. When any part of the brain programs a behavior it sends the program to the cerebellum. Control of upper airway motoneurons during REM sleep. 26. 125. 96. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:793-842. This organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as shown by Moruzzi (80). Braz J Med Biol Res 1996;29:1645-50. We propose that the function of dream sleep (more properly rapid-eye movement or REM sleep) is to remove certain undesirable modes of interaction in On the other hand, cells that were silent during the behavioral task did not show the increase in frequency. The reinterpretation of dreams: an evolutionary hypothesis of the function of dreaming. Physiology and Psychology. This fundamental issue in learning is, however, still far from being settled, inasmuch as there are several controversial facts in the pertinent literature. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. 92. In: Antrobus, J.S. 14. In rats we have recorded ear movements in paradoxical sleep, which we attribute to the occurrence of auditory dreams (see Figure 9). Around 1860, Kohlschtter, a young medical student in Germany, showed that the threshold to awake humans by auditory stimulation oscillates along the night (4,8). The correlation between dream content and the oniric movements was first studied by Aristotle, who identified lip, eye and limb movements and correctly related them to what was being dreamed of. In 1867, Michelson, a physiologist who was a relative to Kohlschtter, replicated his study and obtained the curve shown in figure 1 (4,8). No wonder that dream recall is impaired in brain-damaged patients (97). Simes CA, Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C. Correlation between concomitant theta waves in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the hippocampus, thalamus and neocortex during dreaming in rats. Lucrce. The subjects of dreams are broad-ranging and complex, incorporating self-image, fears, insecurities, strengths, grandiose ideas, sexual orientation, desire, jealousy and love". Acta Med Iug 1978;32:45-50. The PGO potentials are correlates of dreams. The caudalmost portion of this system (then labeled descending hypnogenic cholinergic) comprises the ventral and dorsal Gudden's nuclei, whose stimulation with carbachol triggered sleep in nearly 20 seconds. In: C. Guilleminaut, W. C. Dement and P. Passouant (eds.) 116. WebAbstract. In decerebrate cats eye movements do occur and are integrated below the midbrain (67,95). 130. J Neurophysiol 1977;40:284-95. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. Rostrum movements in desynchronized sleep as a prevalent manifestation of dreaming activity in Wistar rats. They also argue that even "expensive and cumbersome evoked potential and computer averaging approaches have not helped us to analyze and compare desynchronized sleep physiology with that of waking in an effective way". In 1986 Vertes advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the brain stem (dreaming?) Brooks DC, Bizzi E. Brain stem electrical activity during deep sleep. A regular oscillation modulates the amplitude of the potentials. Bourgin P, Escourrou P, Gaultier C, Adrien J. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. Milbrandt J. It is well known that during desynchronized sleep the pupil undergoes an increase in diameter (midriasis), which is not produced by direct sympathetic activation but rather to parasympathetic inactivation, that overcomes the tonic pupillary constrictor activity of the parasympathetic system during synchronized sleep. eCollection 2020. Moruzzi G. Sleep and instinctive behavior. Recently a more acceptable evidence in favor of the consolidation hypothesis arises from the study of a gene involved in neuronal activation This gene protein, zif-268 (98), binds to a specific DNA molecule present in the promoters of a variety of genes expressed in the nervous system (99) and its up-regulation is thought to initiate a program of gene regulation leading to neuronal plasticity (100). This seems to be a highly improbably conception, among other reasons because, as dreaming is concerned, threatening events are as dangerous to the organism as bad news we hear and as crossing a street or watching a movie-film full of violence are as well. As such, this explanation may be interpreted as a way of doing something that we should never be allowed to do without paying for it. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:867-76. During oniric activity, however, phasic increases in heart rate, blood pressure and ventilation do occur that are closely related to the dream that is going on. Winson J. Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). In nocturnal macrosmatic animals, olfaction is the predominant sensory channel and their vibrissae are usually very long, to detect the presence of objects at relatively large distances. Despite such discrepancies, however, during synchronized sleep PRT studies reveal a decrease in global cerebral energy metabolism relative to both waking and desynchronized sleep. Considering dreams as hallucinations, Hernndez-Pen (1966) theorized that they are possible because the system responsible for wakefulness is inactivated during sleep, releasing memory tracings which are brought to consciousness. Spreng LF, Johnson LC, Lubin A. Autonomic correlates of eye movement bursts during state REM sleep. It is interesting that the representation of animals in dreams of infants is quite conspicuous. Careers. The other is that dreams are caused by forebrain activation by dopamine. Brain Res 1990;517:224-8. 42. In blind people, whose auditory and somesthetic sensitivity is enhanced, auditory dreams predominate, as expected from their high auditory sensibility. Would you like email updates of new search results? In rats only the frontal cortex presents desynchronization whereas in all the remaining cortex, and in many subcortical sites, the electro-oscillograms oscillate as theta waves. De Sanctis, in 1899, in his book I Sogni, Studi Clinici ed Psicologici di un Alienista (Dreams, Clinical and Psychological Studies of a Psychiatrist), cites no less than 323 articles and books dealing with dreams, which proves that the objective study of dreams did not start during the middle of the 20th century, as is usually taken for granted (4). 112. 127. J Neurophysiol 1946;9:165-71. Time course of foslike immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. The neurophysiological mechanisms of the postural and motor events during desynchronized sleep. Analysis of the electro-oscillograms yields extremely relevant information that can be correlated with movements and changes in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration. Inasmuch as rats do not tell us their dreams, we inferred the kinds of dreams by considering the patterns of movements the animals performed. In cats desynchronized sleep appears also as tonic cortical desynchronization (figure 3) but in the hippocampus, septal area and amygdala theta waves predominate, as in rats and rabbits. He gives Ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) burst neurons: correlative evidence for neuronal generators of PGO waves. While the how and why of dreaming may be explored using physiological and biological methods, dreaming is also a subjective experience involving a form of mentation that can offer representations of an individual's internal world. Braz J Med Biol Res 1992;5:745-50. WebWhen a person entered rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, it activates circuits within the brain stem. Depression of electrically induced reflexes (H- reflexes) in man during low voltage EEG sleep. Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. The motoneuron inhibition, responsible for the sleep atonia and abolition of movements, is not complete in infancy (figure 5). 6. 17. The main purpose of experimental decerebration is to study the mechanisms of the fundamental posture, that is, the standing posture. Heiss W-D, Pawlik G, Herholz K, Wagner R, Weinhard K. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in man during wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming. Fortunately, thanks to this peculiar incomplete motoneuron inhibition we are able to record movements occurring in both humans and non-human animals and thus infer the presence of dreams. Heart rate decreases down to nearly 150 bpm 1 or 2 seconds following the cessation of eye movements. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. Doctoral thesis, Federal University of So Paulo, 1995. Its is noteworthy that Weed & Halam's data, published in 1896, are close to those reported by Rechtschaffen & Buchignani in 1992, which was calculated as the mean of the average of seven different studies published by other authors (40). Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. & Ajmone-Marsan, C. 45. Sleeping and Waking. Fos-like immunoreactivity was also found in association with cholinergically induced REM sleep (107,108). Experientia 1964;20:1-3. If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. "Insects are also creatures that do sleep, so much so that they can be seen resting with no movements whatsoever. Baust's data regarding the cat are also evident (38). Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. Later, school and work dominate the mental field and the main features in dreams also change accordingly, supporting this hypothesis. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. Those that are specific to certain behaviors. Motoneuron inhibition is mild in the early post-birth days and increases according to a saturation curve (60). Solms M. Dreaming and REM sleep are controlled by different brain mechanisms. In: Klemm, W. R. & Vertes, R. P. In cats, during movements related to dreams such hyperpolarization is reinforced by presynaptic inhibition of afferents to motoneurons. Xerxes, in fact, had discovered an important aspect of dreams but his oracle discarded such an explanation, in favor of the mystic one. Above the transection, synchronized and desynchronized sleep keep occurring but without eye movements. By comparing the program with the peripheral information, that tells it how the behavior is evolving, the cerebellum produces corrections, so that the execution can match the program. Rechtschaffen A, Buchignani C. The visual appearance of dreams. Some peculiarities of the dreams of patients with vestibular diseases. Therefore, desynchronized sleep should be ascribed a homeothermic function (116). 22. 2019 Oct 22;10:1127. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01127. 51. The narrower is the angle of rotation, the lower is the recorded potential, which happens when attention is being directed to a very small part of the object or when the object is very near. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. Wehr TA. Roffwarg et al. Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. In: Baust, W. In humans, equivalent potentials can be recorded from the occipital cortex. Consequently, Foulkes concludes that they do not dream but this conclusion is probably incorrect, inasmuch as at this age children have a highly limited narrating capacity and their poor reports about dreams are certainly linked to such a limitation, not their absence. We spend a lot of time sleeping. Matsuyama K, Kobaysahi y, Takakusaki M, Mosi S, Kimuta H. Termination mode and branching patterns of reticuloreticular and reticulospinal fibers of the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis in the cat: an anterograde PHA-L tracing study. 16. The preferential eye movements direction may be related to the dream content and, perhaps, as such also to hemispheric dominance but it should always be taken into consideration that any movement originated by a dream is always faulty, otherwise we would perform normal behaviors during a dream, what does not happen due to the inhibition of motoneurons. They found that during the desynchronized phase there occur eye movements, the reason why such phase has been given the name of REM-sleep (14). Front Neurol. (1991) and Lovblad et al. Desynchronized sleep has been identified in many mammals and birds (16) but below the birds only in crocodiles brief periods of an equivalent phase (eye movements, low voltage electro-oscillograms and cervical hypotonia) seem to occur (17). J Neurophysiol 1954;17:532-57. Our experience with eye movements in rats (30-32) and cats (33) shows, however, that eye movements are sometimes asymmetric but in other occasions they tend to be of the scanning kind. 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